A comparison of flight energetics and kinematics of migratory Brambling and residential Eurasian Tree Sparrow

Table 1 Statistical results of flight-related morphology, load-lifting capacity, flight kinematics, flight speed and energy efficiency between Fringilla montifringilla (Brambling, BRAM; n = 8) and Passer montanus (Eurasian Tree Sparrow, TRSP; n = 13) in independent t-tests or Mann–Whitney U tests

Type of variable	Variable	t value	P value
Flight-related morphology	Body mass (g)	0.569	0.576
	Wing length (mm)	16.69	< 0.001
	Wing area (cm²)	6.158	< 0.001
	Wing loading (N/m²)	4.326	< 0.001
	Aspect ratio	5.024	< 0.001
Load-lifting capacity	Maximum load (g)	1.321	0.202
	Mass-corrected maximum load	2.040	0.056
	Maximum wing loading (N/m²)	4.326	< 0.001
Flight kinematics	Wingbeat frequency (Hz)	6.627	< 0.001
Flight kinematics	Wing stroke amplitude (deg)	2.691	0.015
Flight performance	Maximum vertical speed (m/s)	0.625	0.540
	Maximum vertical acceleration (m/s²)	0.171	0.866
	Power margin	0.641	0.529
	Maximum range speed (V_mr, m/s)	8.298	< 0.001
	Maximum speed (V_max, m/s)	8.176	< 0.001
Flight energy efficiency	Power at V_mr (W)^a	5.914	< 0.001
	Power at V_max (W)	6.266	< 0.001
	Mass-corrected power at V_mr (W/kg)	6.669	< 0.001
	Mass-corrected power at V_max (W/kg)	7.228	< 0.001
	Parasitic drag at V_mr (N)	5.972	< 0.001
	Parasitic drag at V_max (N)	5.817	< 0.001
	Reynolds number at V_mr	3.336	0.003
	Reynolds number at V_max	3.411	0.003
	Mass-corrected power cost per 100 km at V_mr (Wh/kg)^a	7.901	< 0.001
	Mass-corrected power cost per 100 km at V_max (Wh/kg)	9.544	< 0.001

ISSN: 2053-7166