Table 1 Studies of vocal sex dimorphism of monomorphic birds included in this review
From: Gender identification using acoustic analysis in birds without external sexual dimorphism
| Order | Common and scientific names | Call type | Method | Sexing reliability | Number of birds | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apterygiformes | Little Spotted Kiwi (Apteryx owenii) | Loud whistle call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 9 m; 6 f | Digby et al. (2013) |
| Anseriformes | White-faced Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna viduata) | Loud whistle call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 14 m; 9 f | Volodin et al. (2005a, 2009) |
| Fulvous Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna bicolor) | Loud whistle call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 6 m; 5 f | Volodin et al. (2009) | |
| Cuban Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna arborea) | Loud whistle call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 10 m; 7 f | Volodin et al. (2009) | |
| Red-billed Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna autumnalis) | Loud whistle call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 4 m; 4 f | Volodin et al. (2009) | |
| Red-breasted Goose (Branta ruficollis) | Two-syllable call | Measuring acoustic variables and DFA | No sex differences | 22 m; 12 f | Volodin et al. (2008) | |
| Red-breasted Goose (Branta ruficollis) | Duet call (triumph ceremony) | Revealing male and female parties by spectrogram | 100 % | 65 birds | Volodin (1990b) | |
| White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons) | Duet call (triumph ceremony) | Visual inspection of spectrogram | High | Not given | Krechmar (2003) | |
| Galliformes | Willow Ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) | “krrow” call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | High | Not given | Martin et al. (1995) |
| Podicipediformes | Black-necked Grebe (Podiceps nigricollis) | Advertising call | Measuring acoustic variables | High | 38 m; 27 f | Nuechterlein and Buitron (1992) |
| Columbiformes | Orange-bellied Fruit-dove (Ptilinopus iozonus) | Coo call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | High | Not given | Baptista and Gaunt (1997) |
| Eurasian Collared Dove (Streptopelia decaocto) | Coo call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 9 m; 6 f | Ballintijn and ten Cate (1997) | |
| Caprimulgiformes | Marbled Frogmouth (Podargus ocellatus) | Gobble call | Measuring acoustic variables | High | 20 m; 21 f | Smith and Jones (1997) |
| Cuculiformes | Pheasant Coucal (Centropus phasianinus | Descending whoops call; scale call | Measuring acoustic variables | High | 9 m; 9 f | Maurer et al. (2008) |
| Gruiformes | Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio) | Crowing call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | High | Not given | Clapperton (1983) |
| American Hoot (Fulica americana) | Squeak call, 1-note recognition call, 2-note recognition call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 14 birds | Cosens (1981) | |
| Whooping Crane (Grus americana) | Guard call | Measuring acoustic variables and DFA | High | 141 m; 118 f | Carlson and Trost (1992) | |
| White-naped Crane (Grus vipio) | Guard call | Measuring acoustic variables | Low | 5 m; 5 f | Bragina and Beme (2013) | |
| White-naped Crane (Grus vipio) | Duet call | Revealing male and female parties by spectrogram | 100 % | Not given | Swengel (1996) | |
| Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus) | Trill call | Measuring acoustic variables | High | 9 m; 9 f | Bragina and Beme (2007) | |
| Red-crowned Crane (Grus japonensis) | Duet call | Revealing male and female parties by spectrogram | 100 % | 10 m; 10 f | Klenova et al. (2008) | |
| Procellariiformes | Leach’s Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma leucorhoa) | Chatter call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 14 m; 12 f | Taoka et al. (1989a) |
| Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma monorhis) | Flight call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | 100 % | 50 m; 50 f | Taoka et al. (1989b), Taoka and Okumura (1990) | |
| Madeiran Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro) | Flight call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | 100 % | Not given | James and Robertson (1985a) | |
| Fork-tailed Storm petrel (Oceanodroma furcata) | Single-syllable call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | 100 % | Not given | Simons (1981) | |
| Greater Shearwater (Puffinus gravis) | Burrow call | Measuring acoustic variables | High | 12 m; 10 f | Brooke (1988) | |
| Little Shearwater (Puffinus assimilis) | Burrow call, flight call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | 100 % | 14 m; 14 f | James and Robertson (1985b) | |
| Manx Shearwater (Puffinus puffinus) | Burrow call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | High | 18 m; 11 f | Brooke (1978) | |
| Yelkouan Shearwater (Puffinus yelkouan) | Burrow call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 28 m; 18 f (in two studies) | Bourgeois et al. (2007), Cure et al. (2009, 2011) | |
| Balearic Shearwater (Puffinus mauretanicus) | Burrow call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 11 m; 10 f | Cure et al. (2010) | |
| Cory’s Shearwater (Calonectris diomedea) | Burrow call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 62 m; 45 f (in two studies) | Bretagnolle and Lequette (1990), Cure et al. (2009) | |
| Blue Petrel (Halobaena caerulea) | Burrow call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | High | 404 m; 100 f | Bretagnolle (1990), Bretagnolle and Genevois (1997) | |
| Thin-billed Prion (Pachyptila belcheri) | Burrow call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | 100 % | 154 m; 127 f | Genevois and Bretagnolle (1995) | |
| Broad-billed Prion (Pachyptila vittata) | Burrow call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | High | Not given | Bretagnolle et al. (1990) | |
| Antarctic Prion (Pachyptila desolata) | Burrow call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | High | Not given | Bretagnolle et al. (1990) | |
| Fairy Prion (Pachyptila turtur) | Burrow call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | High | Not given | Bretagnolle et al. (1990) | |
| Salvin’s Prion (Pachyptila salvini) | Burrow call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | High | Not given | Bretagnolle et al. (1990) | |
| Bulwer’s Petrel (Bulweria bulwerii) | Single call, double call, repeat call | Measuring acoustic variables | No sex differences | 18 m; 24 f | James and Robertson (1985c) | |
| Snow Petrel (Pagodroma nivea) | Burrow call | Measuring acoustic variables | No sex differences | 26 m; 24 f | Barbraud et al. (2000) | |
| Ciconiiformes | Oriental Stork (Ciconia boyciana) | Clatter | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 7 m; 7 f | Eda-Fujiwara et al. (2004) |
| Charadriiformes | Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) | Long call | Measuring acoustic variables and DFA | 100 % | 18 m; 14 f | Aubin et al. (2007) |
| Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) | Long call | Measuring acoustic variables and DFA | Low | 41 m; 35 f | Mulard et al. (2009) | |
| European Herring gull (Larus argentatus) | Kyow alarm call, kek alarm call | Measuring acoustic variables | No sex differences | 8 m; 8 f | Hardouin et al. (2013) | |
| Brown Skua (Catharacta antarctica) | Loud call, contact call, alarm call | Measuring acoustic variables and DFA | Low | 20 m; 22 f | Janicke et al. (2007) | |
| Parakeet Auklet (Cyclorhynchus psitaculla) | Whinny call | Measuring acoustic variables and DFA | High | 8 m; 5 f | Klenova et al. (2012) | |
| Crested Auklet (Aethia cristatella) | Trumpet call | Measuring acoustic variables and DFA | No sex differences | 9 m; 4 f | Klenova et al. (2012) | |
| Strigiformes | Eastern Screech-owl (Otus asio) | Bounce song | Measuring acoustic variables | High | 5 m; 3 f | Cavanagh and Ritchison (1987) |
| Western Screech-owl (Otus kennicottii) | Bounce song | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 15 m; 10 f | Herting and Belthoff (2001) | |
| Barred Owl (Strix varia) | One-phrased hoot, inspection call | Measuring acoustic variables | High | 2 m; 4 f | Odom and Mennill (2010) | |
| African Wood Owl (Strix woodfordii) | Hoot call | Measuring acoustic variables | High | Not given | Steyn and Scott (1972) | |
| Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) | “u-hu” call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 9 m; 9 f | Grava et al. (2008) | |
| Coraciiformes | Green Woodhoopoe (Phoeniculus purpureus) | “kek” call | Measuring acoustic variables | 100 % | 41 m; 38 f | Radford (2004) |
| European Bee-eater (Merops apiaster) | Provisioning call | Measuring acoustic variables | No sex differences | 14 m; 14 f | Lessells et al. (1995) | |
| Falconiformes | White-tailed Hawk (Buteo albicaudatus) | Alarm call | Measuring acoustic variables | High | 3 m; 3 f | Farquahar (1993) |
| Psittaciformes | Poicephalus Parrots 6 species | Distress call | Measuring acoustic variables | Low | 4–10 birds per species | Venuto et al. (2001) |
| Kea (Nestor notabilis) | Mew call, screech call | Measuring acoustic variables | Low | Not given | Schwing et al. (2012) | |
| Passeriformes | White-rumped Munia (Lonchura striata phaethontoptila) | Distant call | Visual inspection of spectrogram | 100 % | 13 m; 13 f | Mizuta et al. (2003) |